What is Vedanta?—this question isn’t uncommon in the West. But those who have even a nodding acquaintance with Eastern, and specifically Indian, philosophical thought have heard about Vedanta. So what does the word mean to them? Not an easy question to answer, because Vedanta has come to mean many things to people.
Words are like living organisms. They evolve over time. Their meanings expand or contract in response to societal and cultural changes and expectations. That is what has happened to “Vedanta” as well. Its literal meaning is clear enough. Vedanta is a combination of two terms, Veda and anta (“essence” or “end”), meaning the essence of the Vedas or the end of the Vedas.
The Vedas are the supreme Hindu scriptures which are believed to have no human author (apauruṣeya). They were revealed to seekers of Truth in deep meditations. These seekers are regarded as sages (ṛṣi) and seers of the Vedic revelations (mantra-draṣṭā), not as authors of the Vedas. The revelations were transmitted and preserved orally and, when writing became the norm, were written down on parchments. At some point in history, a great sage named Vyāsa undertook the task of collecting these texts and compiling them into what became four books—Ṛg-veda, Yajur-veda, Sāma-veda, and Atharva-veda.
Each of these four books is divided into four parts. The first, called Saṁhitā, contains hymns and prayers; the second, called Brāhmaṇa, contains details regarding Vedic rituals and sacrifices; the third, called Āraṇyaka, contains various kinds of meditations (called vidyā); and the last, called Upaniṣad, contains the spiritual revelations that place the entire human experience into context, pointing out the real nature of the self, its mysterious predicament, and the way to its eventual freedom (mokṣa).
The first three parts of the Vedas deal primarily with rituals, external and internal, and collectively form the “ritual section” (karma-kāṇḍa). The last part, which contains the Upaniṣads, deals with philosophy and forms the “knowledge section” (jñāna-kāṇḍa). This section usually comes towards the end (anta) of each Veda and contains the principles and insights that tie together the wisdom found in the rest of the Vedas. The Upaniṣads thus embody the essence (anta) of the entire Vedas. As text, therefore, Vedanta primarily refers to the Upaniṣads.
The Upaniṣads often look like fragmentary notes, and it is not easy to discover the narrative that links the brilliant insights and truths scattered throughout those texts. For that we turn to the commentaries (bhāṣya) written by great mystics and teachers (ācārya) who were able to discover the subtle links in these ancient texts and explain them. Not surprisingly, we see in these commentaries a range of interpretations, especially about the relationship between the embodied self (jīvātman) and the supreme self (paramātman). Those who hold that the two are distinct and forever separate belong to the dualistic school (dvaita). Those who hold that the two are related—the embodied self being a part of the supreme self—belong to the qualified nondualistic school (viśiṣṭādvaita). Those who hold that the two may appear as two but are really one and the same belong to the nondualistic school (advaita).
There have been many great interpreters throughout history and there will be more to come in the future. Some names stand out—such as Śrī Śaṅkarācārya (788–820) among the nondualists, Śrī Rāmānujācārya (1017–1137) among the qualified nondualists, and Śrī Madhvācārya (1238–1317) among the dualists. In their commentaries, these teachers present concise narratives that support their views and refute those of others. To bolster their arguments the teachers provide references not only from the Vedas but also from post-Vedic texts (smṛti), mythology (purāṇa) and history (itihāsa). The vital contribution of Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902) helps us to think of the different interpretations in evolutionary terms. As we evolve, our conceptual frameworks evolve too. Every interpretation of these great teachers fulfills a need and, in one way or another, opens the door to the ultimate reality.
Among these teachers, the nondualists tend to depend almost exclusively on the Upaniṣads while others rely more on later texts. That is why the Upaniṣads have in the popular mind become identified with the nondualistic approach. Śrī Śaṅkarācārya’s powerful influence on Indian philosophy also plays a significant role in identifying the Upaniṣads with nondualism. To many, therefore, Vedanta seems inseparable from nondualistic thinking. The meaning of Vedanta does get narrowed down this way to a specific school of Indian philosophy.
Like other world religions which have been around for centuries, Hinduism is not a monolith. It is divided into sects (sampradāya), each with its own central deity, scripture, rituals, mythology, and traditions. Among the major sects in Hinduism are Śaiva (worshipers of Śiva), Vaiṣṇava (worshipers of Viṣṇu as Kṛṣṇa, Rāma, or Nārāyaṇa), and Śākta (worshipers of of Kālī or other forms of the Divine Mother). Some tend to think of Vedanta as yet another sect, comprising “worshipers” of the Impersonal God. Identifying Vedanta as one among the many Hindu sects is another way through which Vedanta’s meaning gets shrunk.
Each of these sects and sub-sects in Hinduism is in many ways radically different from other sects. What is astonishing is that, in spite of the staggering diversity, all of these sects think of themselves as Hindu. What is it that connects them and gives them a shared identity? Adding to the complexity is the simple fact that no Hindu scripture has the word “Hindu” in it. These words—Hindu, Hinduism—are of a relatively recent origin. The sects and their followers have always seen themselves as a part of the “eternal way of life” (sanātana dharma). However they may have seen themselves in the past, today their self-identity as Hindu is firmly entrenched.
Among the things that all the sects of Hinduism share in common is the acknowledgment that the Vedas are the supreme authority. While every Hindu sect usually has its own favored scripture other than the Vedas, all of them have the highest regard for the Vedas. They believe that, directly or indirectly, they have inherited the Vedic heritage and it is reflected in various ways through the life and practices of their people. Since Vedanta is, literally, the essence of the Vedas, it is possible to say that Vedanta provides the philosophical foundation on which the various Hindu sects have built their vast edifices. This way of thinking sees Vedanta as the underlying essence of what is recognized as Hinduism.
We have seen how Vedanta’s meaning expands or contracts depending on how people perceive it. Vedanta’s literal meaning is simply “the essence of the Vedas.” As text, Vedanta is understood to be the Upaniṣads. As philosophy, Vedanta is often identified with nondualism. It is sometimes thought of as a sect or a tradition within Hinduism on par with sects such as Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva or Śākta. Many see Vedanta as the philosophical essence that provides the foundation to the multifarious ways in which Hinduism manifests in the world. All of these different perceptions of Vedanta revolve around the Vedas, which are generally thought of as the ancient and supreme books of Hinduism.
The idea that the Vedas are books is questionable, especially when we remember that the Vedas are considered to be without beginning (anādi) and without end (ananta). Speaking at the Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893, Swami Vivekananda said:
“It may sound ludicrous to this audience, how a book can be without beginning or end. But by the Vedas no books are meant. They mean the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times. Just as the law of gravitation existed before its discovery, and would exist if all humanity forgot it, so is it with the laws that govern the spiritual world. The moral, ethical, and spiritual relations between soul and soul and between individual spirits and the Father of all spirits, were there before their discovery, and would remain even if we forgot them.” (CW 1. 6-7)
Whatever is true and real stands on its own authority and is independent of time, place and people. No country, no religion, no time in history, no place on earth can lay claim to the ownership of truth and reality.
Derived from the Sanskrit root vid, “to know,” the word “Veda” primarily means knowledge. Vedanta therefore can as well be understood to be “the essence of knowledge.” How can this be limited in any way and by anyone? God’s revelations are eternal and unbounded. Speaking at Pasadena in California on January 28, 1900, Vivekananda said:
“Is God's book finished? Or is it still a continuous revelation going on? It is a marvelous book—these spiritual revelations of the world. The Bible, the Vedas, the Koran, and all other sacred books are but so many pages, and an infinite number of pages remain yet to be unfolded. I would leave it open for all of them. We stand in the present, but open ourselves to the infinite future. We take in all that has been in the past, enjoy the light of the present, and open every window of the heart for all that will come in the future.” (CW 2. 374)
This insight frees Vedanta from every factor that tends to limit it to a specific book, or a specific school of philosophy, or a specific sect, or even a specific religious tradition. It identifies Vedanta with spirituality itself, which is truth without any frontiers. Even while acknowledging and embracing rituals and personalities, theologies and traditions, Vedanta transcends all these without denying them. Knowledge has no specific name, so even the word “Vedanta” disappears in the infinite effulgence of the divine presence.
There are no right or wrong answers here. Every way in which Vedanta is perceived serves a purpose and is useful as far as it goes. How students of Vedanta understand Vedanta shapes how they see themselves and how they relate to others.
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